Topic Six Essay

Point Six Essay Point Six Essay Market Segmentation, Targeting and Positioning Meeting 6 7 Segmentation and Targeting LB5202 Marketing Management 1 Learning Outcomes After this meeting you ought to have the option to: Clarify showcase division and the bases Clarify the prerequisites for powerful division: †quantifiability, availability, generosity, noteworthiness Examine the way toward assessing and choosing market sections Clarify situating for upper hand 7 Segmentation and Targeting LB5202 Marketing Management 2 Three phases of promoting Mass advertising †dealer mass produces, mass conveys and mass elevates one item to all purchasers. Item assortment advertising †dealer produces at least two items that have various highlights, styles, quality, estimates, etc Target showcasing †merchant distinguishes advertise fragments, chooses at least one of them, and creates items and promoting blends custom-made to each. 7 Segmentation and Targeting LB5202 Marketing Management 3 Steps in showcase division, focusing on and situating Kotler, Brown, Burton, Dean and Armstrong (2010, p.204) 7 Segmentation and Targeting LB5202 Marketing Management 4 Three significant strides in target promoting Market division partitioning a market into particular gatherings of purchasers with various necessities, qualities or practices require separate items or promoting blends Market focusing on assessing each market segment’s engaging quality choosing at least one of the market portions to enter Market situating setting the serious situating for the item and making a point by point showcasing blend 7 Segmentation and Targeting LB5202 Marketing Management 5 Market division Markets comprise of purchasers †vary in at least one different ways Vary in their needs, assets, areas, purchasing mentalities and purchasing rehearses †purchasers have one of a kind needs and needs, each is possibly a different market †plan a different promoting program for every purchaser †dealers face bigger quantities of littler purchasers and don't discover total division beneficial †they search for wide classes of purchasers who contrast in their item needs or purchasing reactions †assembled into fragments that are probably going to respond comparatively 7 Segmentation and Targeting LB5202 Marketing Management 6 Bases for fragmenting shopper markets Geographic Segment isolating a market into various land units separating the market into bunches dependent on factors: †countries, districts, states, regions, urban areas or neighborhoods †age, sexual orientation, family size, family life cycle, pay, occupation, training, religion, race and nationality www.bing.com/pictures/(got to 1/6/11) 7 Segmentation and Targeting LB5202 Marketing Management 7 Bases for sectioning buyer markets Age and life-cycle stage Shopper needs and needs change with age, age and life-cycle division isolates a market dependent on age and life-cycle bunches Gender: since quite a while ago utilized in garments, beautifying agents and magazines account and vehicles, among others www.bing.com/pictures/(got to 1/6/11) 7 Segmentation and Targeting LB5202 Marketing Management 8 Bases for fragmenting shopper markets Occupation Pay †utilized in products and enterprises, for example, vehicles, vessels, garments and travel Multivariate segment Professional Specialized Official †Segmentation by joining at least two segment factors. Deals Low Medium High Pay 7 Segmentation and Targeting LB5202 Marketing Management 9 Bases for fragmenting buyer markets Psychographic: †purchasers sectioned on mental/character characteristics, way of life or qualities †individuals in the equivalent geodemographic gathering can have various profiles Social: †sectioned into bunches dependent on their insight into the item, their mentality towards it, the manner in which they use it and their reactions to it Advantages looked for: †portioned by the various advantages they look for from the item. 7 Segmentation and Targeting LB5202 Marketing Management 10 Bases for division â€

The eNotes Blog One Teachers Most Important Lesson How to Save aLife

One Teachers Most Important Lesson How to Save aLife In a typical center reality where educating is once in a while increasingly worried about assessing understudies aptitudes for test-taking than with assessing their prosperity, one instructor has built up a smart strategy for following her childrens contemplations and emotions, and perhaps sparing lives simultaneously. On Glennon Doyle Mertons Momastery blog, she composes of her children math instructor, an anonymous, unrecognized yet truly great individual. What makes her so? One evening, Merton dropped by her children fifth-grade homeroom for help on the best way to all the more likely guide him with his schoolwork, and she and his instructor got to talking. After some time they proceeded onward from strategies for long division to ways of thinking of instructing, both concurring that subjects like math and perusing are the least significant things that are found out in a study hall, that we owe it to understudies to impart in them graciousness, sympathy, and valiance most importantly. What's more, that is the point at which this educator imparted a mystery strategy to Merton. Each Friday as a general rule she requests that understudies compose on a bit of paper the individuals theyd like to sit with for the next week. She additionally requests that every one designate one individual to be perceived as the uncommon study hall resident of that week. This may sound truly normal, until you understand what shes really doing with these assignments. Once the youngsters have left the structure, this fifth-grade math educator and previous NASA worker scours her understudies selections for designs. Who isn't getting mentioned by any other person? Who doesn’t even realize who to ask for? Who never persuades saw enough to be assigned? Who had a million companions a week ago and none this week? Chase’s instructor isn't searching for another seating graph or â€Å"exceptional citizens.† Chase’s educator is searching for desolate kids. She’s searching for youngsters who are attempting to interface with other kids. She’s distinguishing the little ones who are getting lost in an outright flood of the class’s public activity. She is finding whose endowments are going unnoticed by their companions. Also, she’s nailing down â€â right away â€â who’s being tormented and who is doing the harassing. Flabbergasted, Merton asked to what extent shed been doing this for, to which the educator answered, Ever since Columbine. Each and every evening since Columbine. Goodness. That implies that before Sandy Hook, before Newtown, before any of the other 22 acts of mass violence that have occurred since April twentieth, 1999, this instructor realized that the wellspring of outward savagery is inward depression. She knew about an approach to recognize the understudies enduring a separation and she realized how to fix it. What's more, what this mathematician has discovered while utilizing this framework is something she actually definitely knew: that everything †even love, in any event, having a place †has an example to it. What's more, she finds those examples through those rundowns †she breaks the codes of disengagement. After a long profession of attempting to guarantee childrens security and mental prosperity, this moving educator resigns this year. It really is great there are such a significant number of out there to convey the torchâ †we just need to get the message out to show them how. How would you or educators you know move empathy in your understudies? What techniques would you be able to share that lessen a childs disengagement before it turns into an enduring issue? Marry love to hear your considerations in a remark.

A Seemingly Stressful Survey

A Seemingly Stressful Survey Now I get to mention something cool that I do with my life here! It may have casually come up in the times that I’ve written here that I am a News Editor for our campus newspaper, The Tech. For me, that means one night a week in our office on the 4th floor of the student center reading through the news section, editing stories, making sure that content comes in on time, writing last minute stories, and essentially making sure that there’s stuff to go on the front page. It falls on the shoulders of me and the two other news editors to make sure that you get your bi-weekly (twice weekly) dose of news from reading our paper. Over the past month or so, as me and the other news editors were a part of the survey committee, we had to make sure there this ENTIRE spread of stories was edited and ready to run in our latest feature. If you haven’t checked it out yet, you should!  http://tech.mit.edu/V132/N59/pressure/index.htm It also includes an interview with fellow admissions blogger Lydia K! http://tech.mit.edu/V132/N59/lydiakinterview.html This feature is all about the stress that students feel while being in school here at MIT. We ran a survey starting right before Thanksgiving and got responses from 3,191 undergrads and graduate students about what makes them stressed here at the institute. I’m sure you might have heard, but MIT IS HARD! There are always things going on, work to be done, and I feel, especially after this year, that it’s very easy to take on too much. I’ll let the data and the stories speak for themselves, but remember, that even though we may feel stressed out, inadequate, even down right depressed sometimes, you don’t have to go it alone. There are a lot of resources here to help you get the support you need so you can be the best you can be during your time here. In the end, it comes down to you recognizing that you’re still awesome people. MIT might throw you for a loop, but it’s ok to make mistakes. If we didn’t make mistakes and everything was easy, how would we learn? Anyway, I spent A LOT of time in The Tech office and with Tech people getting this done. Putting it together has been a bit of a stressful process (see what I did there?), but I hope you like it.

Exploratory Report Example - 977 Words

XXXXXXXXX Exploratory Report Stake-Holders: People/Entities The conflict of the Ground Zero mosque has become one of the fiercest religious based debates in recent years. One of the most influential men in the debate is Feisal Abdul Rauf. Rauf is the Imam (leader in prayer) at the current New York City mosque just a few blocks away from the proposed location of the future mosque. He has put a lot of time and money into this proposed mosque and does not plan to give up on it. Another key person in this issue is Sharif El-Gamal, the CEO of Soho Properties. Soho Properties is the company who purchased the lot where they plan to build the mosque, and who is overseeing the hiring and funding to complete the project. Sharif and Feisal have been†¦show more content†¦The main reason for opposing this mosque is the location of it being too close to Ground Zero. Those who oppose it do not necessarily oppose mosques in America, since there are over 23,000 of them. Rather, they oppose i t being near a location where Islamic terrorists attacked America nine years ago on 9/11. Many Muslim-Americans, such as Raheel Raza, say building this mosque would be a slap in the face to America. Also, there are a lot of mysteries behind this mosque such as where the funding is going to come from. Rauf has said he is going to release where all the funds are coming from, but has yet to even after many requests. Many are led to believe that Radical Extremists are providing funds, and the Park51 group has neither confirmed nor denied these allegations. The biggest person opposing this project is Newt Gingrich. He is quoted on the record many times saying this building is going to be looked at as a victory mosque for the terrorists. The people opposing this project have compared this situation to that of when the Catholic nuns built a convent in Auschwitz to honor those who were killed, and had no intentions other than peaceful ones, just like the Park51 leaders. The Jewish community became very hostile and started protesting and causing riots. When Pope John Paul heard about this aggression, he asked the nuns to vacate the land to maintain peace. Those against this mosque raise theShow MoreRelatedAMB201 Tutorial 21216 Words   |  5 PagesAMB201 Marketing and Audience Research Tutorial 2 Exploratory Research and Exploratory Report Today’s Agenda ï‚ § Practice questions ï‚ § Exploratory research ï‚ § Requirements for Exploratory Report ï‚ § Attendance sheet (ensure your name is checked off) Practice Questions 1. The research question â€Å"What are the most popular tourist destinations for visitors to Australia?† would be addressed with which type of research? a) Exploratory c) Causal b) Descriptive d) Analysis Practice Questions 2. A researcherRead MoreEssay about Marketing Research Tools1167 Words   |  5 Pagesresearch are exploratory, descriptive, and casual research. 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For example, if you want to know why people are not buying your product, the researchers know to target consumers who buy competitive products and ask whether they considered your products. (shukla, 2006) There are 3 types of marketing research problem, first one is the exploratory research it is used in cases where the marketer has no idea about the research problem due to lack of proper information. For example, a marketer has heard about social media marketingRead MoreTesting Approach And Overall Framework1653 Words   |  7 Pagesdescription of the process to set up a valid test (e.g.: entry / exit criteria, creation of test cases, specific tasks to perform, scheduling, data strategy). †¢ Execution Strategy: describes how the test will be performed and process to identify and report defects, and to fix and implement fixes. 1.1 Test Objective The objective of the test is to verify that the functionality of Foo-Com Enterprise works according to the specifications. 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Study On How To Invest During Recession Finance Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 2188 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? In economics, a recession is a business cycle contraction, a general slowdown in economic activity over a period of time. During recessions, many macroeconomic indicators vary in a similar way. Production as measured by Gross Domestic Product (GDP), employment, investment spending, capacity utilization, household incomes, business profits and inflation all fall during recessions; while bankruptcies and the unemployment rate rise. The key to investing during a recession is therefore to start off with the right mentality and do not panic. Recessions can be scary, but they also lay the groundwork for opportunities in the future. Interest rates fall and it becomes less expensive to borrow money. Cost-cutting processes can teach a company to become more innovative and competitive. The lower demand for products and services brings down the effects of inflation. Stock market timing is not exact, but chances are that if you invest during a recession, once the market has r ecovered you will benefit from the increase in price that your investment will bring by way of profit when you do decide to sell. Blue chip stocks are these companies hold leading positions in their industry and have a long, unbroken record of earnings growth and dividend payments. These stocks are high-grade, investment-quality issues of major companies that have the fundamental strength and size to hold their own during a recession and enough resources to capitalize on an economic recovery. All in all, investors who are conservative and who seek safety and stability will usually invest in this group. Examples of blue chip stocks in US stock market include IBM, Intel Corporation, Coca Cola, Bank of American, JP-Morgan Chase, Microsoft Corporation, Walt Disney Company, American Telephone Telegraph, Wal-Mark Stores, General Electric Company, and others. Otherwise, investors typically add defensive stocks to their portfolios during economic recessions, or market downturns. That s because defensive stocks can be expected to perform relatively well during all phases of a business cycle even during difficult economic conditions. A defensive stock is normally associated with a company that belongs to an industry or market sector that is unaffected by business cycles. That is to say, consumer demand for their products or services exists no matter how good or how bad the economy is performing. Defensive stocks are the opposite of cyclical stocks whereby the financial health of cyclical companies move in-sync with the health of the economy. Thats why these stocks are also referred to as non-cyclical stocks. Defensive stocks include companies belonging to the following market sectors are utilities, food beverages, healthcare, non-durable goods. There include American Telephone Telegraph (Telecommunication), Coca-cola Company (Beverages), Johnson Johnson (Pharmaceuticals), Procter Gamble (Consumer goods) and others. The biggest advantage an investor gains throu gh the purchase of defensive stock is a conservative portfolio that should provide above average returns during a recession. The profitability of these stocks will hold up during these hard times because the demand for the products or services of these companies is relatively inelastic. Investments in utility stocks are stocks of electric, water, gas, and telephone companies that are usually with a relatively decent dividend income and high degree of safety. Whether the economy is growing or slowing, people just need electricity, water, gas and phones, these services are an indispensable part of our lives. There include Exelon Corporation, Southern Company, Dominion Resources Industry and American Telephone Telegraph and others. Gold is traditionally seen as a safe investment, especially during a time of financial uncertainty, high inflation, depreciating exchange rates and economic recession. During a recession, gold is seen as a better investment than say the stock market. Sto cks will fall as companies make less profit. Gold is seen as a safe investment for preserving value of assets. This encourages speculative buying of gold as investors diversify out of other riskier investments. Gold has an intrinsic value. A currency like the dollar or Pound Sterling can depreciate in value and the value of the dollar depends on the strength and stability of the US economy. For example, hyperinflation can wipe away the value of your savings e.g. Germany 1923 and Zimbabwe 2008. During this kind of crisis Gold makes a very good investment. Gold will also become attractive if we have negative real interest rates e.g. inflation higher than nominal interest rates. With negative real interest rates, saving in a bank becomes less attractive and gold become more attractive. Gold did well in Great Depression and Second World War which both crisis of different sorts. During a recession, interest rates are typically at their lowest. This means that it will cost the average person less money in terms of interest payments to make large purchases. Among the largest of purchases is the purchase of a home of piece of investment real estate. As the demand for homes tends to decrease during a recession, sellers are forced to lower their asking prices in order to be more appealing to buyers. This lower asking price is also a monetary advantage to the individual looking to invest in a home or to buy a home and hold on to it long enough to have the market rebound and then sell that home for an easy profit. New home sales have seen a steady decline in value during the recession, but that is by no means the only indicator that those looking for an investment opportunity should use to base their decisions off of. Buying a new home that is currently undervalues simply because of the status of the market can be a brilliant investment move. But just as is the case during times where we are not in a recession, certain homes and pieces of property hold their value much better than others. Careful consideration and wise decision making is always something you want to be sure that you remember. Corporate bond is a type of bond issued by a corporation. Corporate bonds often pay higher rates than government or municipal bonds, because they tend to be riskier. The bond holder receives interest payments (yield) and the principal is repaid on a fixed maturity date. US Treasury bond is a negotiable, coupon-bearing debt obligation issued by the U.S. government and backed by its full faith and credit, having a maturity of more than 7 years. Interest is paid semi-annually at fixed coupon rate. U.S. Treasury Bonds are exempt from state and local taxes. These securities have the longest maturity of any bond issued by the U.S. Treasury, from 10 to 30 years. The 30-year bond is also called the long bond. These bonds are not callable, but some older U.S. Treasury Bonds available on the secondary market are callable within five years of the maturity date. The prices of the long term US Treasury Bonds or the highest investment grade bonds would expect to increase during a recession because interest rates tend to fall during a recession. Corporate bonds for a bit more risk and pay out higher amounts but have just a little bit more risk than treasury bonds, especially during a recession. Bonds are considered to be less risky than stocks, since the company has to pay off all its debts (including bonds) before it handles its obligations to stockholders. Corporate bonds have a wide range of ratings and yields because the financial health of the issuers can vary widely. A high-quality Blue Chip company might have bonds carrying an investment-grade rating such as AA (with a low yield but a lower risk of default); while a start up company might have bonds carrying a junk bond rating with a high yield but a higher risk of default. Corporate bonds are traded on major exchanges and are taxable. A high yield bond (non-investment grade bond, specul ative grade bond or junk bond) is a bond that is rated below investment grade at the time of purchase. These bonds have a higher risk of default or other adverse credit events, but typically pay higher yields than better quality bonds in order to make them attractive to investors. Therefore, investors with a greater risk tolerance and much deeper pockets may even want to consider buying into a junk-bond fund. Recent history has shown that junk-bond investors have earned their best returns the year after the junk-bond market bottoms out. In 1991, while the nation was mired in its last recession, the junk-bond market produced an eye-popping 34.6% return on investment, according to Moodys. The impact of declining interest rates is magnified on the junk-bond market because high-yield bonds carry much higher rates than other kinds of bonds. Declining rates make those high yields that much more attractive, which tends to raise the price of the bonds that pay them. An exchange-traded fu nd (or ETF) is an investment vehicle traded on stock exchanges, much like stocks. An ETF holds assets such as stocks or bonds and trades at approximately the same price as the net asset value of its underlying assets over the course of the trading day. Most ETFs track an index, such as the SP 500 or MSCI EAFE. ETFs may be attractive as investments because of their low costs, tax efficiency, and stock-like features. Investors can buying shares in several exchange-traded funds, or ETFs à ¢ÃƒÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¡Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¬ stocks that track the performance of a major market index such as the Dow Jones Industrial Average or the Nasdaq 100, or are based on actively managed mutual funds. That way, they can participate in any early rally in stocks without being overly exposed to any single companys poor earnings performance. ETFs have grown in popularity with individual investors because theyre cheaper and easier to invest in than traditional stock index funds during recession. Money ma rket deposit account is a savings account which shares some of the characteristics of a money market fund. Like other savings accounts, money market deposit accounts are insured by the Federal government. Money market deposit accounts offer many of the same services as checking accounts although transactions may be somewhat more limited. These accounts are usually managed by banks or brokerages, and can be a convenient place to store money that is to be used for upcoming investments or has been received from the sale of recent investments. They are very safe and highly liquid investments, but offer a lower interest rate than most other investments. Credit default swap is a specific kind of counterparty agreement which allows the transfer of third party credit risk from one party to the other. One party in the swap is a lender and faces credit risk from a third party and the counterparty in the credit default swap agrees to insure this risk in exchange of regular periodic payments es sentially an insurance premium. If the third party defaults, the party providing insurance will have to purchase from the insured party the defaulted asset. In turn, the insurer pays the insured the remaining interest on the debt, as well as the principal. During recession, investors should keep some extra money in an interest-bearing money-market account especially if theyre investing money theyll need fairly soon. Investors shouldnt expect to get rich off the 4% annual yields offered on most money-market accounts but at least theyre guaranteed to make some money. Investors also stash some money in six-month or one-year bank certificates of deposit which on average pay a 2% higher annual yield than a money-market account. For the casual investor who does not have the time or inclination to actively manage his or her own portfolio, mutual funds reduce the time and effort needed. That stays true even in a recession. The trick is finding mutual funds that do well in tough economic times. There are certain industries that weather recession better than others and the best mutual funds will be sector funds which are based on a specific industry. Industries that do well during economic downturn include utilities and staple consumer goods. Mutual funds in recession-proof sectors can still be volatile and under-perform if the fund manager buys and sells constantly or the fund charges a high management fee. Review the fee structures for the funds you are considering and choose one with a high historical return and low fee. Other mutual funds that can be considered as recession proof would include money market funds and bond funds. The best way to use mutual funds both before and after a recession is to have a diversified mutual fund portfolio in the first place. Having a constructed portfolio of both stocks and bonds will provide you an opportunity or cushion for participating in stock market growth or markets decline. Conclusion, recession may not seem like the best time to be investing your money but just because we are in a recession doesnà ¢ÃƒÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¡Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¬ÃƒÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¢t mean the market has come to a complete standstill. There are different ways you can invest which obviously vary depending on your current financial situation, but yes, there is an investment possibility for everyone, which can help put a little extra savings back in your pocket and even yield some future wealth down the road. Practicing a bit of patience and proper financial planning can go a long way in these times of economic turbulence. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Study On How To Invest During Recession Finance Essay" essay for you Create order

Unique Examples of National Pride Free Essays

Unique Examples of National Pride : In the first story I read â€Å"Cathleen Ni Houlihan† (which was actually an amazing story! ) I felt that before the OLD WOMAN came the family was kind of selfish and greedy (with the whole money thing) and when the OLD WOMAN came they changed and they became instantly unselfish and not greedy they wanted to help her out. And later in the story the OLD WOMAN changed everyone’s prospective at life including Michael who is getting married to Delia and then he totally forgot that he was getting married to her just because the OLD WOMAN changed his way of looking at things including his marriage. And the OLD WOMAN told them how many people died just for her and to get her lands back(Irish). We will write a custom essay sample on Unique Examples of National Pride or any similar topic only for you Order Now And she had much Pride into getting her lands back and fighting the Irish for taking it. The second story I read is â€Å"Address to General William Henry Harrison† The main guy in the story, Shawnee had very much respect for his country. He said he would do anything for his country ! And he argued with his brother about being better then what he was acting selling the country and then Shawnee said â€Å"Why not sell the air, the great sea, as well as the earth? Did not the Great Spirit make them all for the use of his children? † The Red People wanted to take over they’re country and Shawnee’s brother seemed like he wanted to sell the country because he didn’t want to fight for his country. Then Shawnee brought up Jesus dying on The Cross for us. Then he told his brother â€Å"Everything I have told you is the truth. The Great Spirit has inspired me. † How the two are the same or compared†¦ They both had pride and sacrifice for the things they stood up for. They loved there country so much they would die for it. And in the two stories I found that they are very much alike because the. OLD WOMAN and Shawnee are a like they both fought for what the believed in and for there country. They both wanted freedom and they both inspired another person to fight in the war beside them. How to cite Unique Examples of National Pride, Papers

Earnings and Management Guidance Strategy †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Earnings and Management Guidance Strategy. Answer: Introduction: The internal information of the firms play a major role in tax planning and that plays a major role in tax avoidance. If there is no adequate information that is available then companies might end up losing tax cuts. It is difficult to coordinate the different department of the firm for the sake of tax planning and sometimes the tax documentation might be so much that the tax authorities will nullify the same. It is thus important that awareness must be there and all departments must be coordinated to make sure that effective tax planning is done(Mayntz, 2017). However strangely in todays time the presence of evidences states that the importance of the internal information of the firm might end up affecting its tax avoidance capabilities. In this research paper we will try to understand how the internal information of any company might affect its overall tax avoidance and what role does it play in it. The report will follow the flow of information towards the concept of tax planning and that might end up affecting its prospects of tax avoidance. Tax avoidance is legally practiced but there is a very thin line between tax avoidance and tax evasion. Often while planning ethically people end up hiding their income by unlawful means thus that must be avoided. We will also study the overall role of the internal information in tax avoidance and judge the various aspects of the information that is available on the basis of various parameters like availability, accessibility, quality, importance to the firm in regard to the overall financials of the company. If the firm employs high quality accounting information system it will be able to use the same to extract high quality information accordingly(Minnis Sutherland, 2017). The various aspects of internal information have still been neglected in terms of tax planning but slowly its importance is being established. If good information is not available, tax planning might not be up to the mark, and that might affect the overall flow of data. It is difficult to establish effective coordination of tax planning across business or geographical segments. There is huge risk involved in the same as the firm documentation might not be able to prove the same and hence that will bring the firm in worse position. It is thus important that internal information must be properly regulated to avoid any kind of flow of such data from one source to another without regulation. For example Bayer has suggested in its reports that it might take several years for it to provide Research and development documentation and that has affected the overall tax standing of the company. Moreover companies around the globe are facing issues in managing their transfer pricing data, only 49 percent of all the countries globally flow their transfer pricing data through automated systems rest all are still struggling with the same. So that is affecting their overall standing in terms of tax prospects, if they dont have proper documentation they will not be able to prove their stand in front of the tax authorities. Thus the importance of effective documentation and the use of proper accounting system to maintain the same are very vital for any firm(Pape, 2017). The managerial decisions also pay an important role in case of the same. Thus as much as it is important to identify the correct information that will help in tax avoidance that must important it is to make sure that firms take necessary steps in maintenance and documentation of the same. Even if the firms are able to do practice effective tax planning that reduces their tax liability considerably, if they are not able to prove the same in front of the taxation authorities through proper documentation it will in crease more risk for the firm. In this research paper the need and importance of the same will be explained with support of examples and theories(Rodriguez Kaczmarek, 2016). To ascertain the importance of the internal information of the firm for the prospects of tax avoidance. To ascertain the need for good accounting management system that will help in maintenance of the documentation related to the internal information system and will also help in the flow of data from one department to others. The resilience that the firms put on tax avoidance to make sure that they end up paying less taxes and how the government is effected by the same. The steps that the government has taken in recent times to reduce the tax evasion and tax avoidance and the importance that it stress on documentation will be explained briefly. The research questions forms the basis that decides the flow of the research paper. In this assignment we will focus on certain aspects of tax avoidance and internal information importance will be highlighted in the same. The basic questions will cover coordination requirements between the different departments of the organization. Most of the departments practices decentralization in todays world, as per which the information is not accumulated and stored at a single place but is widespread across various locations on a rational basis. But this information is not available to the managers and they often fails to locate the flow of the same thus affect the tax planning that is done by the company(Werner, 2017). In case of active businesses the level of interaction is very high but when it comes to businesses that have been operating from many years and in which some departments ceases to exist, it becomes difficult to trace the flow of information and document the same in that regar d. Thus decentralization of information on a rational basis and ascertaining that flow of data happens accordingly is very important from the prospects of tax planning(Visinescu, Jones, Sidorova, 2017). And thus same will be discussed in this research paper, as on how the companies can employ good accounting software that can help them in managing their data effectively. In case of tax planning there is presence of huge uncertainty as the tax rules and guidelines are changing continuously, the government is always looking for rules and ways by which it can prevent companies from avoiding their tax avoidance. It is thus important that while planning for the tax elements the companies must see to it that the managers and the people who are given this responsibility must have proper knowledge in that regard that will help them in reducing the issues that they face with the tax department in terms of wrong tax rules or lack of effective documentation(Trieu, 2017). Thus the research question can be on how the managers can make sure that the level of uncertainty is reduced to acceptable level and they should make sure that they are employing experts who have good knowledge of this field of study. Thus that will help in reducing the tax issues. The tax avoidance planning also consists of tax risk. Tax risk occurs in case the management is not able to prove their tax calculation on the basis of the taxable income that they have shown; it might affect their business very badly and can cause them huge penalty. It is always preferable that level of risk must be comprehended beforehand, and then tax planning must be done. If there are two companies that have employed tax avoidance methods that have reduced their liability to a certain level then out of the two company the company that have better documentation and will be able to prove the department will have better chances of not facing any issues(Maynard, 2017). Thus there is a significant level of risk that must be avoided. And the research question will be formed on that regard ascertaining the ways by which the company can avoid their risk elements. What is the need of decentralization in case of tax avoidance and maintenance of the quality of internal information of the company? What are the ways in which the company can avoid the risk that is involved with tax planning and management? What are the methods that the company must follow if they want to reduce the high level of uncertainty that is involved with tax planning? How important it is for the companies to maintain quality internal information to satisfy the needs of the department and what role it will play in tax avoidance is the most important question that will be covered in this research paper. A wide and elaborated research was conducted by Jafari Amine Isfahani (2014) that focused on the corporate social responsibility of the companies around the globe to practice tax avoidance. For his research he studied at least 92 firms and drew up a report on how effective were these companies in suing their internal information for avoiding their taxes considerably. The results of his research stated that social responsibility had on effect on tax avoidance. There was no connection between tax avoidance and social responsibility(Trieu, 2017). It was important for the firms to make sure that they were avoiding the taxes on ethical basis and this in no way made them non ethical towards the government. Tax evasion was illegal but same cannot be said for tax avoidance. But what was the responsibility of the government was to make sure that they were practicing tax avoidance activities in such a way that they had proof for the same for the department. It is thus important that they must have proper documentation in that regard. If they are not able to proof the context on the basis of which they were avoiding the taxes that will become unethical. Even if they have no social responsibility they were responsible to avoid the tax disputes that might occur in case they practice wrong tax practices. That forms the basis of the research that was done by Jafari. Relation between Taxable income and Planning of Tax A simple study was carried out a study to study the relation between the taxable income and planning of tax avoidance based on the same and ascertaining the sensitiveness of the information in that regard. This research was conducted to ascertain the smoothing effect of tax avoidance on the overall profitability of the company. He also made investigation on 92 firms that were paying taxes and the main basis was the rate on which the taxes were paid by the company. It was reflected that there was a negative relation between the tax smoothing for income purposes and tax avoidance by applying different laws and principles. It was stated in this regard that smoothing for tax purposes the income might end up lacking the certainty for future tax advantages and provides the firm with abilities to implement better taxation practices. It also stated that exists a negative relative between the smoothing of information and the related information in that regard. It was highlighted that smoothin g the tax included income might end up reducing its overall information content that is related to it. In this research, the author made a note on the various aspects of the information that is related to the overall smoothing of information and taking necessary decisions in that regards. It highlights the issue that is associated with information related to smoothing of information for the purposes of tax. The managerial accounting research has struggled from previous ages on the lack of proper information for tax purposes. Effective management accounting is important for managing the level of internal information that is made available for the companies for tax purposes. The basic issues that relate to the internal information like uncertainty, lack of proper source, lack of proper acceleration might cause deviations in the overall tax planning for the company. This effect the tax avoidance practices a lot and might cause overstatement or understatement of income. There are few public proxies in this regard that deals with the overall quality of the internal information that is available for the managers of the company. Each of these proxies are discussed below in detail(Hanlon, 2010). Use of Accounting Information System Jennings 2012, states the importance of using sophisticated system of accounting for maintaining the internal information and recording the same through accounting information software. It paid resilience on coordination of the information and that helps in solving many issues like increasing the accuracy, removing manual intervention, streamlining reporting of information from time to time. Previously manual method of data collection and analysis was followed but now with advent of technology the same has changed a lot and automatic method of data retrieval has taken place. The companies must appoint experts to make sure that there is no loss of data from such system, proper security is maintained. The data must be entered into such system from regulated sources and then analysis of the same must be done. There are not much issues while using such automatic system the major issue is with security and training must be provided to employees to avoid the same. Else it is very fast and very effective method that might help in collecting the data from various departments, analyzing the same and converting them into such forms that they can be easily used by the managers or the people who deal with the same(Jennings, Stoumbos, Tanul, 2012) Second there was Williams 1996, which stated on the importance of the management forecast accuracy. It is important that the managers trace the sources of data on which the forecast is based. Management forecast is an important aspect of tax avoidance and an important source of data also. There must be a positive correlation between the information provided and the management forecasts. In this way, the managers will be applied to rely on the information that has been provided from various sources if they streamline the same to specific sources. This is how management forecasts helps in maintaining the quality of the internal information available for tax purposes. It is important that good quality information must be circulated so that while tax planning is done that information must be taken into place. Thus it is important that the source form and method of circulation of data must be traced so that in future there are no complications because of the same. It is important that pas t data must be studied before making any future forecasts and care must be taken in that regard. The managers of the company must be trained to study the flow of information and take important decisions based on the same y (William, 1996). Material weakness in Internal Information Third article will involve Feng et al. (2009), that stated that if there any material weakness in the internal control system that might affect the internal information very badly. Material weakness might lead to error in the internal information that the organization is using for the prospect of taxation purpose. Thus, care must be taken to remove all such internal weakness from the system. Weakness might also lead to untimely weekly information and the information might become stale. Information from different departments might not be reported to the headquarters on time and then that might not be considered for tax avoidance. Therefore, it is very important that proper audit of various control elements must be done in the organization. It has also been stated that firms that are using good quality ERP system will not be able to identify the material weakness very easily, thus it is important that companies must take necessary steps to reduce the same. If there are huge material we akness then that will lead to huge loss of investment that will be reflected in the overall tax penalty of the company. Thus, we see how sensitivity of the internal information are related to the position of the company and the actions of the management that are taken to maintain effective flow of the same. Other proxies that will be applied in this case will consist of better environment analyst and better market analyst that will be a great indicator of an effective external environment in which the company will operate(Root, 2011). It can thus be said that there is a strong connection between the internal and the external environment in which the company is operating if one does not function the other will also be affected. It is thus important that the overall quality of information that the internal environment is having must be in synced with the information that the external environment possess. This is how the organization can make sure that there are no issues in the intern al environment by making sure that it is in sync with the external environment and based on the market research that has been done in that regard. A higher level of internal information is a pre-requisite for error free external information that the analyst offers after conducting the required level of research and development. These two are the most important variable while designing the research study and effective analysis of the same on that regards(Feng Koch, 2010). Conclusion Thus, based on the above analysis it can be said that effective internal information plays a very important role in maintaining the level of data that is used for the prospects of tax avoidance. Companies while dealing with the same must keep some important point in mind like maintaining the data accessibility and viability and it must be available from secured sources. Timely audit must be done to make sure that there are no loopholes in the internal management system which could lead to adulteration of the data. Effective tax planning by taking necessary steps for maintain the quality of internal information can be done by various methods that includes a) Resolving the uncertainty of the information through better information acquisition b) coordination through various information dissemination tools c) Reducing the overall risk that might be involved in taxation process. The various theories and proxies that have been stated in the assignment can be used accordingly to find the so lutions to the issues that the company faces about maintaining the quality of information. The focus of this paper is on tax avoidance and the companies should see on how they can practice the same ethically. That will help in proofing the same in front of the departments and help them in proving their stand. The main research objectives have been fulfilled stressing on important points related to the overall flow of information, flow of data, assimilation of results and taking decisions accordingly based on the same(Rezai, 2013). The basic recommendations that can be provided to employ better and new methods that might help in keeping the data safe, securing the flow of data from one source to another. Managers can be trained to use the data effectively that the receive and make sure that it matches to their external environment in which the company might be operating. Thus, based on all this we can say that better future prospects will be there fueled by better decisions and that will help in keeping the information flowing and maintain the authenticity of the information that will help the company in practicing better taxation avoidance practices. This will help the company in paying of taxes ethically without any malpractices in that regard. Few other sections that are relevant to this research will help in ascertaining the importance of taxation policies about the tax avoidance practices. It is very important that companies must follow various accounting policies and accounting practices that will help them in tax planning in an innovative way. Tax planning is a very wide field and the companies must employ experts that can help them in this regard. The importance of the internal information of the companies has been stated clearly in this research paper and all the companies must pay heed to the same. The above discussed issues must be taken care of and then the company will be in a good position economically and will be able to avoid the level of taxes that the company must pay to the government. Thus, various taxation provisions must be studied in detail, the rules of the government in that regard must be studied and then the managers must go forward with making better analysis and better forecasts and making the tax avoidance planning based on the same(Blessings, 2010). The most conclusive thing from this research paper is how the companies can go forward and take necessary steps in that regard that will help them in maintain the effectiveness of their information and make sure to use it economically. This research is good in ways as it highlights the major issues that the companies are facing with respect to tax avoidance and sometimes fails to identify the thin line between tax avoidance and tax evasion(Mullineus, 2014). This research highlights the basic issues that company faces with respect to maintaining the quality of the information that the internal environment must offer, and make sure that the external environment is in sync with the same. The research consists of various articles with respect to the same, that supports the stand of the company in that respect. The uniqueness is there in the points highlighted and the support documents in respect to the same. References Blessings. (2010, JANUARY 02). Strategic Management Accounting Knowledge. Retrieved October 31, 2016, from Maximin, Maximax and Minimax Regret Decision Criteria: https://apmstuff.blogspot.sg/2010/01/maximin-maximax-and-minimax-regret.html Feng, M., Koch, A. (2010). Once Bitten, Twice Shy: The Relation between Outcomes of Earnings Guidance and Management Guidance Strategy. The Accounting Review, 85(6), 1951-198. Gartland, D. (2017). The importance of audit planning. Journal Of Accountancy. Hanlon, M. a. (2010). Review of Tax Research. Journal of Accounting and Economics 50, no. 23, 127-178. Jennings, J., Stoumbos, R., Tanul, L. (2012). The Effect of Organizational Complexity on Earnings Forecasting Behavior. . Kohtamki, M. (2017). Real-time Strategy and Business Intelligence: Digitizing Practices and Systems. Finland: Palgrave Macmillan. Maynard, J. (2017). Financial Accounting, Reporting, and Analysis (SECOND ed.). NewYork: Oxford University Press. Mayntz, R. (2017). Networked Governance. Springer. Minnis, M., Sutherland, A. (2017). Financial Statements as Monitoring Mechanisms: Evidence from Small Commercial Loans. Journal of Accounting Research, 55(1), 197-233. Mullineus, J. (2014). The Distinction Between Tax Avoidance and Tax Evasion. New Zealand Universities Law Review, 26(2), 273-296. Pape, T. (2017). Value of agreement in decision analysis: Concept, measures and application. Computers Operations Research, 80, 82-93. Rezai, F. K.-A. (2013). The Effect of Corporate Social Responsibility on Tax Avoidance. Non-Governmental Non-Profit Institution of Higher Education. Rodriguez, J., Kaczmarek, P. (2016). Visualizing Financial Statements. Root. (2011, April 26). Expected Value. Retrieved October 31, 2016, from Investopedia: https://www.investopedia.com/terms/e/expected-value.asp Trieu, V. (2017). Getting value from Business Intelligence systems: A review and research agenda. Decision Support Systems, 93, 111-124. Tysiac, K. (2017). Rulemaking gives auditors a chance to provide more insight. Journal of Accountancy. Tysiac, K. (2017). Tactics for driving quality in a single audit. Journal Of Accountancy. Visinescu, L., Jones, M., Sidorova, A. (2017). Improving Decision Quality: The Role of Business Intelligence. Journal of Computer Information Systems, 57(1), 58-66. Werner, M. (2017). Financial process mining - Accounting data structure dependent control flow inference. International Journal of Accounting Information Systems, 25, 57-80. William, P. (1996). The Relation Between Prior Earnings Forecast by Management and Analyst Response to a Current Management Forecast. The Accounting Review, 103-116.

National Intelligence Community

Definition and Discussion of Mental Grammar

Definition and Discussion of Mental Grammar Mental grammar is the  generative grammar stored in the brain that allows a speaker to produce language that other speakers can understand. It is also known as  competence grammar and linguistic competence. It contrasts with linguistic performance, which is the correctness of actual language use according to a languages prescribed rules.   The concept of mental grammar was popularized by American linguist Noam Chomsky in his groundbreaking work  Syntactic Structures (1957). Philippe  Binder and Kenny Smith noted in The Language Phenomenon how important Chomskys work was: This focus on grammar as a mental entity allowed enormous progress to be made in characterizing the structure of languages. Related to this work is  Universal Grammar, or the predisposition for the brain to learn complexities of grammar from an early age, without being implicitly taught all the rules. The study of how the brain actually does this is called neurolinguistics. One way to clarify  mental  or competence  grammar  is to ask a friend a question about a sentence, Pamela J. Sharpe writes in Barrons How to Prepare for the TOEFL IBT. Your friend probably wont know why  its correct, but that friend will know  if  its correct. So one of the features of mental or competence grammar is this incredible sense of correctness and the ability to hear something that sounds odd in a language. Its a subconscious or implicit knowledge of grammar, not learned by rote. In The Handbook of Educational Linguistics,  William C. Ritchie and Tej K. Bhatia note, A central aspect of the knowledge of a particular language variety consists in its grammar- that is, its  implicit  (or tacit or subconscious) knowledge of the rules of pronunciation (phonology), of word structure (morphology), of sentence structure (syntax), of certain aspects of meaning (semantics), and of a  lexicon  or vocabulary. Speakers of a given language variety are said to have an implicit  mental grammar  of that variety consisting of these rules and lexicon. It is this mental grammar that determines in large part the perception and production of speech  utterances. Since the mental grammar plays a role in actual language use, we must conclude that it is represented in the brain in some way.The detailed study of the language users mental grammar is generally regarded as the domain of the discipline of linguistics, whereas the study of the way in which the mental grammar is put to use in the actual comprehension and production of speech in linguistic performan ce has been a major concern of  psycholinguistics. (In Monolingual Language Use and Acquisition: An Introduction.) Prior to the early 20th century and previous to Chomsky, it wasnt really studied how humans acquire language or what exactly in ourselves makes us different from animals, which dont use language like we do. It was just classified abstractly that humans have reason, or a rational soul as Descartes put it, which really doesnt explain how we acquire language- especially as babies. Babies and toddlers dont really receive grammar instruction on how to put words together in a sentence, yet they learn their native tongue just by exposure to it. Chomsky worked on what it was that was special about human brains that enabled this learning.

Organisational Politics Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 10750 words

Organisational Politics - Dissertation Example In the highly competitive environment, where every individual is concerned about job security, pursuance of self-interest has taken dominance. Managers engage in enhancing their abilities and capabilities to use power, and participate in political activities. In the process, they attempt to exercise coercion and control over their subordinates. This naturally gives rise to resistance which takes the shape of conflicts. However, according to Max Weber, organizations can achieve the coordination necessary for rational, logical and calculable action only through impersonal coercion and discipline of subordinates and clients (McNeill, 1978, p65). Pfeffer (1992, p10) contends that power and influence are social realities and in trying to ignore them, organizations lose a chance to understand these critical social processes and to train managers to cope with them. However, power has been associated with such a negative interpretation that people keep away from it for fear of getting a bad name. Politics in general is also related to negative outcomes; politics is considered to be inherently non-rational and subject to power interactions between diverse interests (Kinicki, 2008) but Vigoda (2000, p1) found weak negative relationship between perception of organizational politics and employees’ performance. ... Allen et al (1978, p78) emphasize that managers must know of the political processes and elaborate on the proactive and reactive behavior of the managers. Lee (1987, p316) identifies sources of power as coalition, expertise, information, rewards, emotional ties, authority and coercion while Varman and Bhatnagar add formal authority, rules and regulations, knowledge and information, counter organizations and informal organizations. However, a person’s actual power is a function of the sources, importance and scarcity of the power available to them (Lee, 1987, p317). Farrell and Peterson (1982, p403) examine individual political behavior within an organization, which they feel has been neglected. Fleming and Spicer (2008, p302) propose that power and resistance in an organization are intertwined. Bureaucratic power is used to exercise control and this gives rise to conflicts in the organization. Thompson (1960, p390) discusses the different forms and sources of organizational co nflicts while Rubenstein (1996) differentiates between conflict management, conflict resolution and conflict settlement. To resolve conflicts power and politics are the facilitators. Most of the literature reviewed here suggests that people are rational and active in pursuit of their goals. They need to influence, they need to manipulate to accomplish goals. This would imply that using tact and manipulation is acceptable as it helps further the interest of the individual as well as of the organization. However, they are seldom conscious of the repercussions of their actions. Imbalance of power can lead to several undesirable consequences such as workplace bullying, harassment and victimization. Several authors such as

Mesh Networks Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 10000 words

Mesh Networks - Coursework Example As organizations are relying more on high-speed wireless networks, security is a vital factor. Wireless security is a framework that emphasizes on prevention of workstations or networks from unauthorized access. An automated system known as mobile ad-hoc network (MANET) is integrated within the wireless networks to establish communication between wireless nodes or access points. However, MANET does not have centralized administration. MANET is defined as â€Å"Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) refers to a type of mobile network in which each node has the ability to act as a router, permitting adaptable multi-hop communications† [3]. The ad-hoc on demand distant vector protocol (AODV) that is operated by MANET provides loopholes for the hackers to gain access to the network or the system via a wireless network. AODV is widely used due to its significant advantages such as lower network overhead with a complex algorithm. However, AODV does not maintain the database for routing infor mation in the router. This is the area where there is a possibility of the hackers to break in the network. This paper will discuss the details associated with attacks incorporated with AODV. Moreover, other type of threats that may affect the domestic wireless network operating on an 802.11 will also be defined and discussed. 3. Introduction MANET is constructed on multiple routers knows as multi hop communication paths, these multi hop communication paths, can be dislocated any time and in any direction. The routing protocols that are associated with MANET are categorized in to hybrid, table-driven and demand-driven routing protocols [1]. Table-driven protocols attempt to synchronize routing information with the routing table for each wireless router. For example, Destination Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV) and Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP) protocols fall under the category of table-driven protocols. Demand-driven protocols are associated with AODV and dynamic source routing pr otocol (DSR). Hybrid routing protocols interlinks with the other two protocols i.e. table driven and demand driven routing protocols. The wireless MANET network is associated with protocols that are not well designed in terms of network security, as there is no centralized administration to monitor or configure MANET. However, most of the wireless network protocols associated with MANET is designed for optimum bandwidth utilization but not for optimal security. These factors have made the wireless network vulnerable for the hackers and cyber criminals. One of the examples of mesh networks are illustrated in Fig. 1. Figure 1 Source: (Siraj and Bakar 1263-1271) One of the latest examples for mesh network is the youtube architecture, as shown Fig 1.2. Figure 2 Source: (Staehle et al. 144-148) In this competitive and evolutionary world of technological advancements, threats and vulnerabilities are a great concern. Similarly, any wireless protocol must address security issues during the design phase. The protocol must add

Causes of the Revolutions in Latin America

Causes of the Revolutions in Latin America The French Revolution has often been credited with fanning the revolutionary flames that swept through Latin America at the turn of the nineteenth century. It thus seems logical that the struggle against Spain was conditioned by the ideas and events that caused the upheaval in France, and that the great liberators of the continent, men like Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin, were inspired by political tremors from across the sea. Yet a careful study of the Latin American uprisingsplaced against the nineteenth-century backdrop and amid the influences of the American Revolution, several English authors, and the writings of some liberal Jesuitsmakes the French connection rather difficult to discern. The scholar must also distinguish between the influence of the famous critics of the ancien regimeRousseau, Voltaire, Montesquieu, and the encyclopedistsand the impact of the guillotine. In Latin America, the first carried much more weight than the second. Placing the whole period in historical perspective, it is safe to say that French Jacobinism produced a negative reaction among most Latin revolutionary elites. By the mid-eighteenth century, the Creolesa powerful white minority born in the colonieswere undergoing a cultural crisis. Taught that their mother countries were glorious and powerful empires, they realized Spain and Portugal had become second-rate powers, far beneath mighty England and enlightened France. Seeking cultural independence, the Creoles learned economic liberalism from England and political liberalism from Francealong with near mystical faith in the power of a constitution, popular sovereignty, and the evils of absolutism. Ideologically armed, they aimed their criticisms against the obsolete policies of Spain and Portugal. Although increasingly chaffing under colonial rule, and impressed by these new ideas, the Creoles were far from revolutionaries. They wanted to curtail their monarchs authority and become equals to the Spaniards and Portuguese without violent upheaval. Surrounded by seemingly docile Indians, black slaves, and mestizos, most Creoles worried that any political turmoil would provoke a disastrous racial conflict. The Indian rebellions of 1791 in Peru (which had drawn the Creoles to the Spanish side), and the heroic, successful black revolt in Haiti in 1794 (the one Latin American uprising directly connected to the French Revolution) gave credence to this worry. The writings of the French critics of absolutism (particularly Rousseau and Montesquieu), which began reaching Latin America at the end of the eighteenth century, were thus cautiously embraced by the enlightened elite, despite cultural and traditional barriers to their acceptance. For example, even the most radical Creoles, unlike their French masters, were outspokenly Catholic. In 1810, the Argentinean revolutionary Mariano Moreno translated Rousseaus Social Contract, but suppressed those chapters criticizing religion. Concerning religion, Moreno explained, the great French philosopher suffered a certain delirium. Consequently, the Creoles were willing to approve or applaud the events in France as long as they followed a pattern outlined by the ancien regimes critics. The proclaiming of a constitution and the Declaration of the Rights of man thus had a profound impact. But when the Revolution intensified, Creole attitudes changed. The royal executions, mob violence, religious persecutions, and Robespierres guillotining provoked a general rejection. At the end of the eighteenth century, Colombian leader Antonio Narino and a group of Venezuelan conspirators translated and distributed the Declaration of the Rights of Man, defending most French revolutionary ideas. A few years later, Venezuelas Francisco de Miranda, the great ingurator of Latin independence who had fought as a general in the French revolutionary army (his name is inscribed in the Arc de Triumph), stressed that the ideas of the French Jacobins and Girondins should not be allowed to contaminate the continent, not even under the pretext of bringing us freedom I fear anarchy more than dependence, he stated. That pervasive fear of anarchy (evident in the writings of Bolivar and San Martin) and the events leading to Napoleons rise reinforced the creoles cautious instincts. They associated in French Revolution with anarchy, bloodshed, and sacrilege. In 1800, the distinguished Peruvian politician Pablo de Olavide (who like Miranda had lived in France during the revolution) publicly recanted his former liberal ideas and exalted orthodox Catholicism as the only defense against the destructive tide of the French Revolution. I was in Paris in 1789 and saw the birth of the horrible revolution, which in little time has devoured one of the most beautiful and rich kingdoms of Europe, de Olavide wrote. Almost at the same time Mexico Citys Fray Servando de Teresa y Mier, who had endured prison and fought for Mexican independence, attacked the Revolution: The French have deduced it is necessary to hang each other to attain equality in the cemetery, the one place we are all equals. To judge from the writings and declarations of the period, three concepts survived the creoles rejection of revolutionary excess: constitutionalism, republicanism, and popular sovereignty. Too hastily attributed to the French Revolution, all had penetrated Latin American years before, legitimized by the popular (at the time) example of the United States. In 1806 Napoleon deposed and imprisoned Spains King Ferdinand VII, imposed his brother Joseph on the throne, and caused the Portuguese royal family to flee to Brazil. When the Spanish people rebelled, the creoles cultural crisis became decidedly political. Amid the collapse of royal authority and the threat of anarchy, they moved from condemning Napoleons crime and asserting their loyalty to the deposed king to proclaiming their independence. After Napoleon was forced to free Ferdinand, most creoles, enjoying new political power, fought the kings attempt to regain authority over his colonies. The struggle intensified after the fall of Napoleon (denounced by the creoles as an ambitious tyrant and the product of the French Revolution) and the vague threat of the Holy Alliance formed in Europe to crush any revolutionary movement. Only then, when the campaigns against Spanish armies had become tough and bloody, did some creoles refer to the early stages of the Revolution in glowing terms, comparing their fight to the French peoples. The allusion was as rhetorical as creole claims of fighting to avenge the conquered and abused Indians. By the mid-nineteenth century, nearly all the newly created Latin American republics had inserted into their constitutions the basic tenets of liberal tradition: the division of power, individual rights, and equality before the law. All decreed Catholicism the official religion. But unlike the previous period, many Latin writers were by then crediting the political advances to the French Revolution. The change of attitude may have stemmed from two main factors. First, the creolesthe new upper elite of their respective countries, with firm control of the state forcesnow had less fear of social turmoil. As the danger of anarchy declined, sympathy for the French Revolution increased. Conservatives acknowledged the justice of the peoples uprising, and liberal factions in each country strove to realize constitutional freedoms. The Triumph of Romanticism: Another factor was the triumph of Romanticism, the most popular and lasting literary movement in Latin America. For many Latin writers, Romanticism was embodied by France, and primarily Victor Hugo. France became the spiritual fatherland for Latin intellectuals, with a pilgrimage to la Ville Lumiere, Paris, mandatory. Ironically, Europes romantic poets glorified the bandits, rebels, and outcasts. French writers from Michelet to Hugo hailed the glories of revolution, of barricades, and of violence against tyrants, and extolled Napoleon, now transformed into the Great Soldier of the Revolution. The Latin writers followed suit. Suffering postindependence disillusionment, watching the rise of caudillos who trampled their beloved constitutions, enduring what the Argentinean poet-politician Esteban Echeverria called the shipwreck of our dreams; they declared themselves the heirs of the Girondins and the Jacobins, and the continuers of a revolution for independence frustrated by tyrants. Every leader, idealist, or bandit who challenged the status quo proclaimed himself revolutionary, with every revolution a child of the glorious French barricades. This lasting devotion to nominal radicalism moved philosopher Hermann Keyserling to register a keen observation. Everywhere, he wrote in 1905, the words tradition and revolution are opposite. Except in Latin America, where politicians appear to be traditionally revolutionary. In 1849, a group of Chilean writers and mystic revolutionaries adopted the names of Danton, Saint-Just, and Demoulins. They formed a Society of Equals and attempted a popular uprising in Chile. Although the revolt was a total fiasco, leader Francisco Bilbao (a writer in the apocalyptic style) swore they had saved the dignity of the Chilean people and vindicated the glory of the French Revolution. Bilbao may have used the wrong example. In 1848, France and other European countries witnessed a new revolution, one whose failure heralded a new concept of what revolution should be. For the first time, Paris saw a parade of workers displaying red flags and witnessed the bloody collapse of their barricades. The following year, Marx and Engels published their Communist Manifesto. The Romantic movement had died. Romanticism took the rest of the century to die in Latin America. At the end of the Latin American romantic era, Nicaraguan Ruben Dario became the acknowledged leader of Modernism. By then, the French Revolution had been sanctified. It was a political and philosophical ideal, a sign of the Latin identity before the menace of the barbarians from the north (the American Revolution was now viewed as the source of American imperialism) and a spiritual bond with the beloved France. The French Revolutions mythic influence has far exceeded its actual contributions to the political trends, constitutions, and laws of Latin America. But the myth has had an influence, helping to maintain the dream of real democracy and true equality for Latin Americans. Sadly, contemporary Latin revolutionaries raise banners closer to the red flags of 1848 than to the ideals of Liberte, Egalite, and Franternite. The French Revolution and Freedom: We have devoted a considerable portion of this months issue to the two hundredth anniversary of the French Revolution. Americans, who are aware that France has been our ally since the time of our own revolution, empathize with the French celebration. The Statue of Liberty, a gift from France, shares with the flag and the bald eagle the distinction of symbolizing our own nation and civilization. The great motto of the French RevolutionLiberty, Equality, and Fraternityexpresses values we Americans respect greatly. Yet, it would be dishonest if we did not note the distortions these values suffered during the Revolution. In one of his rare poetic moments, Hegel referred to the concept of absolute freedom, as it came to be expressed in the French Revolution, as absolute death, meaningless death, as meaningless as quaffing a glass of water or clefting a head of cabbage. French intellectual life at the time of the Revolution was dominated by the philosophers. Some, like Holbach, were empiricists, who believed that knowledge started with sensation. These sensations produced a picture of an external world that was in principle completely knowable. Others, like Condorcet, following the model of inquiry initiated by Descartes, were rationalists. Conceiving of the world on the basis of mathetmatical logic, they believed it was governed by fundamental axioms the mind could grasp intuitively. If Godwho had made the world but then left it to its own devicesknew the initial conditions of the atoms, he would be able to predict the entire future. Men were machines in a clocklike world that science, in principle, could understand thoroughly. Because ignorance had destroyed the initially happy state of nature, science would be required to restore such a state in modern societyeven if humans had to be forced to be free. It is this aspect of the French Revolution that justified the Terror in the minds of its partisans. And it is this aspect of the French Revolution that inspired the Bolsheviks. It is the concept of limitless freedomthe kind of freedom that Hegel satirizedthat today inspires a number of discontented groups in the United States. Although the German language, with its immense penumbra of connotations, permits the looseness of reasoning that one finds in a Mein Kampf, it is the lucidity and precision of the French language that inspires a type of rationality that allows a few a priori axioms to constrain thought about life and politics. The absolute freedom that Hegel called absolute death is an abstract freedom that lacks concrete connectedness. All freedoms are dependent upon correlative constraints. For example, if an object is to be free to roll, it must have a rounded shape that makes it difficult for it to rest on the crest of a slope. The ability to think rationally is dependent, among other things, on not taking mind-altering substances. There is no absolute freedom and no absolute perfection, at least not in this life, where every choice and every freedom involves a trade-off. The ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity also require trade-offs. Any attempt to absolutize one of these values will impose intolerable costs on the others. Possibilities are limited by circumstances. Noveltyand this includes at least some aspects of the futureis not predictable. Moreover, even with respect to mechanicsand especially with respect to quantum theorypredictive power is limited. In fact, the paths of planets are not entirely predictable, for both measurement error and the accumulation of small effects eventually will produce radical, unforeseeable change. Any philosophy that fails to give due weight to uncertainties, complexities, and historically concrete idiosyncracies is likely to encourage tyranny. Any philosophy that is willing to jettison established institutions solely on the basis of a prior theory is likely to produce a reign of terror. This is not an argument against rationality per se, but against only a particular type of rationality, the type that manifested itself in France at the time of the Revolution and against which the most profound French thinkers now are reacting. The overreaction that France experienced twenty years ago in the deconstructionist movementwhich risks turning into its oppositenow is being rejected by the best French thinkers at the very time that deconstructionism has invaded prestigious American universities. The reexamination of the French Revolution, which is so vigorous in France today and which we recount in this issue, should help to inoculate against this intellectual virus. We can thrill to the ideals of the Revolution while sternly rejecting its excrescences and false ideals. Hail, Marianne, still beautiful, glorious, and lucent. This time your scholars and intellectuals are leading the way. From El Cid to El Che: The Hero and the Mystique of Liberation in Latin America Spain gave the world the hero incarnate in El Cid and the transcendent hero in Don Quixote. Much of Spanish destiny would unfold in their shadow, as affirmation and negation of their exemplary lives. The poem and the novel reflect and foreshadow the two great epics of Spanish history: the reconquest of Spain and the conquest of America. For almost eight hundred years Spaniards were obsessed, consumed by the passion of the reconquest of Spain from the infidels, the Arabs who invaded in 710. The notion of lucha, struggle, which permeates much of the revolutionary poetry of Spanish America today, probably goes back as far as 1099, when it is said that El Cid, already dead but strapped to his horse Babieca, won his last battle at Valencia. The capture of Granada and the final expulsion of the Moors from the Iberian peninsula in 1492 was the epic feat of another Spaniard not unlike El Cid, Gonzalo de Cà ³rdoba, El Gran Capità ¡n, whose tactics, training, and organization would make Spanish infantry invincible for almost two centuries. The centuries devoted to warring against the infidel, an enterprise involving much the male population, resulted in plebeians who regarded themselves as noblemen, fumo di fidalgo, according to the Florentine ambassador to Spain in 1513. A Frenchman who visited Spain in the seventeenth century was amazed to hear a poor squire boast that I am as much a noble as the king, aye, and nobler, for he is half Flemish. And the noblemans, or hidalgos, chief occupations were to make war and attend mass; a knights tasks, like Don Quixotes, were battle and prayer. The heroic life was, had to be, a quest, a gesta filled with adventure and longing, longing for honor, even deathanything but the ordinary. Otherwise one might as well be dead or worse, working with money, papers, or ones hands, like Jews and other infidels or, God forbid, women. The regard for leisure and aversion to ordinary work that existed in medieval Spain were exacerbated by the conquest of America. Saint Teresa describes how one of her brothers, having returned from America, refused to work the land. Why should he toil like a dirt farmer after having been a seà ±or in the Indies? The notion of a heroic life was propagated by the cantares de gesta, or chansons de geste, the heroic poetry of the Spanish Middle Ages, the popularity of which is exemplified by Don Quixotes reciting such a ballad to an innkeeper perceived to be the governor of a fortress: Mis arreos son las armas mi descanso el pelear mi cama las duras peà ±as mi dormir siempre velar (Arms are my ornaments combat, my rest vigilance, my sleep the hard rock, my bed). If Spain is the home of the idea of chivalry, observes Miguel de Unamuno, then Quixotism is simply the most desperate phase of the battle of the Middle Ages against its offspring the Renaissance. The books of chivalry, which popularized the medieval ethos of heroic poetry, were the favorite reading not only of the general public but of such austere spirits as Saint Ignatius, Saint Teresa and the Emperor Charles V. indeed, Cervantes, who published the worlds first novel in 1605 to ridicule the genre, was in a sense unhorsed by his own creation, a caricature that took off with a life of its own, leaving its creator behind, eclipsing all his serious works, galloping onto posterity to become that most endearing and enduring of gallant knights. The conquest of America was the consecration of the Spanish hero as crusading knight. The conquistadors exemplify Joseph Campbells definition of the hero: individuals who venture forth from the world of common day into regions of supernatural wonders where fabulous forces must be encountered and decisive victories won so that the triumphant hero can return home with the power to bestow blessings and riches on his fellow men. And the feats of the conquest would be as heroic as anything in the books of chivalry. Few men have shown the daring of Cortes marching into Mexico with 400 men or of Pizarro taking over the Inca empire with 180. And what witnesses they had in their soldiers! One of Cortes men, Bernal Diaz del Castillo, writing as an old man, left us the most vivid, unforgettable account of that mythic European entry into the New World: With such wonderful sights to gaze on we did not know what to say or if this was real that we saw before our eyes and, as I write, it all comes before me as if it had happened only yesterday. But the first wizard to infuse the New World with all the magic and wonder of the Old Worlds legends was the discoverer himself. Columbus painted the inhabitants of Hispaniola to the Spanish sovereigns as if they were blissful creatures from the Golden Age, unsullied before the fall; free of violence or greed, the natives showed as much love as if they were giving their hearts. And from the seed of Columbuss fancy would grow that most enduring American myth, one that combined the bliss of Ovids Golden Age with the innocence of the Bibles paradise lost: the notion of the Noble Savage, a much stronger and lasting presence in the history, literature, and folklore of Latin America than in the United States. In a brilliant examination of Latin American political mythology, the Venezuelan author Carlos Rangel points to the connection between the past notion of the Noble Savage and todays notion of the Noble Revolutionary. The present essay is an exploration of this connection, an attempt to establish whether the Latin America guerrilla of today is somehow the latest incarnation of the Spanish hero. The crusader, warrior, savior, is once again stalking the continent, charged with a sacred mission: to liberate us, to restore us to that free and happy state that Columbus found before the rot set in, to convert us to the true faith, to that very old belief in the New Man. Spanish America, the Nineteenth Century: The Hero As Emancipator: Is it possible, as has been pointed out, that the most significant achievement of that prototypical hero of the nineteenth century, Napoleon, was one that never entered his mind: the emancipation of Spanish America? That Napoleon was both the denial and the consummation of the French Revolution is exemplified by the coins that bore the inscription: REPUBLIQUE FRANÇAISE, NAPOLEON EMPEREUR. But even more than France itself, the young Spanish American republic would be doomed to the paradox of that inscription, to the cyclic transmutation of revolutionary liberation into absolutism. After the Napoleonic invasion of Spain and the abdication of King Ferdinand VII in 1808, the Spanish American colonies proclaimed their freedom. Their independence, however, was achieved after sixteen years of savage war with the Spanish armies, a campaign led by the Venezuelan Simà ³n Bolivar (1783-1830), thereafter known as the Liberator. At the time, belief in the power of the heroic individual was at its peak. And Bolivar, a dashing, brilliant, irresistible personality, exemplified the Napoleonic ideal (the Argentine Josà © de San Martà ­n, the liberator from the South, was more of a George Washington and did not fit the heroic-romantic mold). Bolivar had not only the conceit of genius but, as noted by Unamuno, the heroic energy, indomitable will, and cult of glory characteristic of Don Quixote. The Latin American war of independence was fought with unwilling, untrained, and poorly equipped recruits, over terrain of a savagery inconceivable to either Julius Caesar or Napoleon. In such circumstances, military science counted less than the heroic will and a gift for leadership, traits that were characteristic of Bolivara brilliant improviser who lived by Dantons famous maxim: Laudace, laudace, toujours de laudace! Audacity in everything. In addition to being a great warrior, Bolivar was also the regions first romantic writer and the first great interpreter of Spanish American history. Unquestionably one of the most gifted revolutionary leaders in history and the first Latin American to attain universal renown, he was also the regions greatest visionary. Not the least of his gifts was the clarity of insight with which he analyzed the Latin America conditions that would prevent the liberation he so brilliantly led from producing either a workable political system, as in the Unit ed States, or extensive social and economic reforms, as in post-Napoleonic Europe. He concluded that to serve the revolution was to plow the sea. Truthfulness, harsh honesty about the problems and faults of Latin America, as well as emphasis on the regions responsibility for its own destiny, have been characteristic of the true Latin America hero. But in a political culture where mendacity, sentimentality, and the rationalization of responsibility are endemic (especially among the elites and the intelligentsia), Bolivars harsh truths have never been popular. The great irony of Spanish American emancipation was that el puebloall who are not among the elite (e.g., Indians, blacks, mestizos, mulattoes, poor whites)were consigned to either harsher bondage or greater servitude after liberation than they had been in colonial times when the humanitarian laws of the Spanish Crown did, to an extent, shelter the weak from total exploitation by the powerful. Partly as a result of such abuses and injustices, there arose in the nineteenth century a veritable tide of populist leaders, the rural caudillos who would wreak almost as much havoc and destruction across the young republics as had the savage wars of independence. With clairvoyant desperation, Bolivar anticipated the vengeful rise and bloody wake of these Latin American Cossacks. Another true and truthful hero, the Cuban Josà © Martà ­ (1853-1895), a great admirer of Bolivar, also expressed doubts about the relevance of North American or other democratic systems of government for Latin America. Alluding to the continents violent heritage, the tradition of meeting force with force, he warned, to paraphrase him, that you dont stop the charge of a caudillos stallion with a Hamiltonian decree. The magnitude of Bolivars achievement, the continental scope of his mission, as well as his unrealized dream of an independent and unified Latin America would haunt future generations and inspire in Martà ­ and others a peculiarly Spanish American mystique of continental liberation. The millenarian and totalitarian tendencies of this cult would become more evident in the twentieth century when more than one liberation movement resulted in the oppression and repression of the people it liberated. The great Russian writer Alexander Herzen (1812-1870), who had known or befriended many European revolutionaries of the nineteenth century, including Marx, Bakunin, Garibaldi, and Mazzini, was as prescient as Bolivar about the dark forces unleashed by liberation. He foresaw them engulfing his own country with dire consequences for the Russian people. His statement about Catholic Europe also applies to Latin America: The Latin World does not like freedom, it likes to sue for it; it sometimes finds the force for liberation, never for freedom. He concluded that if only people wanted, instead of liberating humanity to liberate themselves, they would do a great deal for human freedom. Cuba, the Twentieth Century: The Hero As Revolutionary: It is no accident that the Cuban Revolution of 1959 took place in one of those Caribbean islands mythified by Columbus: The earliest utopias of the imagination and the starting places for many key nineteenth century revolutionaries were often islands. The old utopia was thus reborn in the romantic dream of a socialist island inhabited by noble revolutionaries, led by a new Prospero who, like the discoverer himself, could transmute American reality into the stuff European dreams are made of. At long last, through magic incantation, through the language of fantasy and sorcery, a much beloved figure would be summoned: the Noble Savage as New Socialist Man. Like the medieval Spanish knight who consecrated his words, his life, and his death to the nobility of his cause, one of the islands warriors would set forth into the wicked world to proclaim the good news, to spread the gospel of the incarnation of the revolutionary word: In Latin America a New Man had risen to die for our sins, and the New Man was heErnesto Che Guevara. Almost twenty years ago, I published a memoir about him, reminiscences of the young man I knew in Cordoba, Argentina, in the 1940s-1950s, Ernestito Guevara as we knew him then: a handsome, mesmerizing young man who was wildly eccentric and shockingly opinionated but unusually idealistic and generous. But now, I write not about that boy, but about El Che, the Revolutionary, the Guerrilla, an implacable zealot of total war, whose ultimate end is as much a mystery to me as to anyone else. The attempt to unravel it here, to explore from the distance of years, books, articles, this second, abstract persona against the me mory of the first real and immediate human being that I knew well, is a disconcerting endeavor, somehow like refocusing a multiple exposure in which the first impression will always overshadow the others. He was different from other childrenwiser, tougher, more independentprobably because of having been from infancy on the verge of death because of asthma attacks. From the beginning, we wondered at his amazing nonconformity, his passion for the out-of-the-ordinarywhat in hindsight now appear to have been the first stirrings of that very Spanish yearning for the heroic. Unamuno described this yearning as the need to live a life of restless longing, an existence driven, in Huizingas words, by the vision of a sublime lifeor perhaps a sublime death? In a journal he kept as a young man, he carefully transcribed the words of an unidentified victim of the French Revolution: I go to the scaffold with my head high. I am not a victim, I am the blood that fertilizes the soil of France. I die because I must, so that the people can live on. And so are revolutionary myths spun and revolutionary heroes born. In our case, the mythmaking begins with the history of the Cuban Revolution, which would not be portrayed not as the outcome of an extraordinarily favorable constellation of forces and circumstances (e.g., approval rather than intervention on the part of the United States; enthusiastic reports in the American press; massive support on the part of the Cuban middle class; active encouragement and even some assistance from democratic governments in Latin America; and last but by no means least, a powerful and deadly urban terrorist network of middle-class students). The peasants, as Leo Sauvage has observed, played a more important role in Ches imagination than they did in the Cuban Revolution. But the myth of a rural-based revolution would grow and persist, all credit being accorded Cubas peasants as well as that indispensable factor: a miraculously small band of men the armed vanguard, the twelve apostles that would le ad the poor peasants to victory. The number twelve is no coincidenceeven if the original survivors of Batistas first attack were in fact fifteen. The incorporation of biblical or eschatological imagery into political ideology is characteristic of what one historian has called the revolutionary faith. In the nineteenth century, revolutionary ideologies became secularized versions of the old Judeo-Christian belief in deliverance-through-history. At a deep and often subconscious level, the revolutionary faith was shaped by the Christian faith it attempted to replace. In the Paris of the French Revolution there was, as in Galilee, a revolutionary apostolate of twelve, presided over by an ascetic visionary aptly called Saint-Just. The apostles would return with the Russian Revolution in Alexander Bloks 1918 poem The Twelve, the final image being that of Christ-as-revolutionary leading armed apostles into windswept St. Petersburg. As in Paris and St. Petersburg, the apostles third apparition in Havana in 1959 would be as ominous, as fraught with danger for the flock as for the apostles themselves. The Cuban gospel was so electrifying that Ches words would reach as far as his original arch enemy: the Catholic Church. Latin American priests would adopt th